variable properties

 

переменные свойства
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]

Тематики

• энергетика в целом

EN

• variable properties

1) свойство; характеристика; качество; способность; характерная [отличительная\] особенность

2) мн. ч. реквизит, бутафория

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Vegetative Insecticidal Protein, весьма важная персона, высокопоставленное лицо, VIP-персона

2) Компьютерная техника: Veritas Integration Platform, Versatile Image Processor, Versatile Interactive Pan, Video Integration Processor, Virtual Immediate Processing, Vlb Isa Pci, Voyager Information Portal

3) Медицина: vasoactive intestinal peptide, вазоактивный интестинальный пептид

4) Разговорное выражение: (сокр. от very important person) весьма важная персона

5) Американизм: Very Important Papers, Very Important Presentation, Very Impressive Pork

6) Спорт: Very Important Player

7) Военный термин: Variable Incentive Payment, Ventilated Improved Pit, Verified Independently For Performance, Victory In Place, Visitor Improvement Program, Visual Information Projection, Visual Input Processor, variable incentive pay, virtual impact point, visitor information publication, visual identification point, voice information processor, важная персона, важное лицо

8) Техника: V-groove isolation polycrystalline, VHDL instruction processor, vacuum impregnated magnetics, versatile information processor, video input processor, video integrator and processor, viewers in profile, vision information program, visual image processor, visual input

9) Шутливое выражение: Very Important Palestinian, Very Important Petunia

10) Религия: Very Important Prayer, Very Inspirational Posse, Visual Inspirational And Performing, Voices In Praise

11) Юридический термин: Values Integrity And Principles, Verified Identified Parentage, Very Intoxicated Person, Victim In Past, Visually Impaired Person

12) Ветеринария: Versatility In Poodles, Very Important Pandas, Very Important Pet, Very Important Ponies

13) Дипломатический термин: (very important person) очень важная персона

14) Музыка: Vanilla Ice Posse

15) Оптика: virtual image processing

16) Телекоммуникации: VINES Internet Protocol

17) Сокращение: Vehicle Improvement Program (USPS database contains contract records on the purchases of all non-mail hauling vehicles for the Postal Service), Vehicle Improvement Programme, Vertical launch Interface Processor, Vertically Integrated Photodiode, Video Imaging Projectile, Visual Integrated Presentation

18) Университет: Very Important Problem, Virginia Instructors Of Physics

19) Физиология: Various Individualistic Personalities, Vascular Intervention Program, Vision Integrated Performance, Visual Information Processing

20) Электроника: Vertically Integrated Pnp, Very Intense Power

21) Вычислительная техника: Versatile Interface Processor, video image processor, visionary interpreter for PostScript, visual programmer, Virtual Internet Protocol (address, IP), VLB - ISA - PCI (board, VLB, ISA, PCI), Visual Information Projection (terminal, Bull)

22) Биохимия: вазоактивный интестинальный полипептид

23) Биотехнология: Visual immunoprecipitation

24) Транспорт: Vehicle Investment Protection

25) Пищевая промышленность: Very Impressive Proportions

26) Фирменный знак: Valerie Irons Protection, Vista Income Properties, Volunteers In Progress

27) Реклама: Очень важная персона

28) Деловая лексика: Value Indulgence And Privilege, Very Important Partners, Very Innovative Product, Virtual Interactive Partnership, Virtual Internal Procurement, Visibility Image And Positioning, Vision Insight And Planning, Volunteers In Partnership, Volunteers Invaluable Participants, Volunteers Of International Paper, важная персона (very important person)

29) Образование: Values Integrity People, Very Interested Parents, Very Involved Parents, Victory In Partnership

30) Контроль качества: value improvement program

31) Сахалин Ю: value improving practices, value improving practices/process

32) Авиационная медицина: voice interruption priority

33) Макаров: vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, vertical ionization potential

34) Безопасность: very important person

35) Расширение файла: Variable Information Processing, Video Information Provider, Virtual Interrupt Pending, Visual Interactive Parser

36) ООН: Very Ignorant People, Very Impotent People

37) Общественная организация: Volunteer Investment Program

38) Правительство: Various Interesting Points, Very Irksome Place, Virginia Initiative Plant

39) НАСА: Visual Inspection Program

40) Программное обеспечение: Visual Interactive Programming

41) Международная торговля: Value In Partnership

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Vegetative Insecticidal Protein, весьма важная персона, высокопоставленное лицо, VIP-персона

2) Компьютерная техника: Veritas Integration Platform, Versatile Image Processor, Versatile Interactive Pan, Video Integration Processor, Virtual Immediate Processing, Vlb Isa Pci, Voyager Information Portal

3) Медицина: vasoactive intestinal peptide, вазоактивный интестинальный пептид

4) Разговорное выражение: (сокр. от very important person) весьма важная персона

5) Американизм: Very Important Papers, Very Important Presentation, Very Impressive Pork

6) Спорт: Very Important Player

7) Военный термин: Variable Incentive Payment, Ventilated Improved Pit, Verified Independently For Performance, Victory In Place, Visitor Improvement Program, Visual Information Projection, Visual Input Processor, variable incentive pay, virtual impact point, visitor information publication, visual identification point, voice information processor, важная персона, важное лицо

8) Техника: V-groove isolation polycrystalline, VHDL instruction processor, vacuum impregnated magnetics, versatile information processor, video input processor, video integrator and processor, viewers in profile, vision information program, visual image processor, visual input

9) Шутливое выражение: Very Important Palestinian, Very Important Petunia

10) Религия: Very Important Prayer, Very Inspirational Posse, Visual Inspirational And Performing, Voices In Praise

11) Юридический термин: Values Integrity And Principles, Verified Identified Parentage, Very Intoxicated Person, Victim In Past, Visually Impaired Person

12) Ветеринария: Versatility In Poodles, Very Important Pandas, Very Important Pet, Very Important Ponies

13) Дипломатический термин: (very important person) очень важная персона

14) Музыка: Vanilla Ice Posse

15) Оптика: virtual image processing

16) Телекоммуникации: VINES Internet Protocol

17) Сокращение: Vehicle Improvement Program (USPS database contains contract records on the purchases of all non-mail hauling vehicles for the Postal Service), Vehicle Improvement Programme, Vertical launch Interface Processor, Vertically Integrated Photodiode, Video Imaging Projectile, Visual Integrated Presentation

18) Университет: Very Important Problem, Virginia Instructors Of Physics

19) Физиология: Various Individualistic Personalities, Vascular Intervention Program, Vision Integrated Performance, Visual Information Processing

20) Электроника: Vertically Integrated Pnp, Very Intense Power

21) Вычислительная техника: Versatile Interface Processor, video image processor, visionary interpreter for PostScript, visual programmer, Virtual Internet Protocol (address, IP), VLB - ISA - PCI (board, VLB, ISA, PCI), Visual Information Projection (terminal, Bull)

22) Биохимия: вазоактивный интестинальный полипептид

23) Биотехнология: Visual immunoprecipitation

24) Транспорт: Vehicle Investment Protection

25) Пищевая промышленность: Very Impressive Proportions

26) Фирменный знак: Valerie Irons Protection, Vista Income Properties, Volunteers In Progress

27) Реклама: Очень важная персона

28) Деловая лексика: Value Indulgence And Privilege, Very Important Partners, Very Innovative Product, Virtual Interactive Partnership, Virtual Internal Procurement, Visibility Image And Positioning, Vision Insight And Planning, Volunteers In Partnership, Volunteers Invaluable Participants, Volunteers Of International Paper, важная персона (very important person)

29) Образование: Values Integrity People, Very Interested Parents, Very Involved Parents, Victory In Partnership

30) Контроль качества: value improvement program

31) Сахалин Ю: value improving practices, value improving practices/process

32) Авиационная медицина: voice interruption priority

33) Макаров: vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, vertical ionization potential

34) Безопасность: very important person

35) Расширение файла: Variable Information Processing, Video Information Provider, Virtual Interrupt Pending, Visual Interactive Parser

36) ООН: Very Ignorant People, Very Impotent People

37) Общественная организация: Volunteer Investment Program

38) Правительство: Various Interesting Points, Very Irksome Place, Virginia Initiative Plant

39) НАСА: Visual Inspection Program

40) Программное обеспечение: Visual Interactive Programming

41) Международная торговля: Value In Partnership

1) Общая лексика: hum. сокр. Vegetative Insecticidal Protein, весьма важная персона, высокопоставленное лицо, VIP-персона

2) Компьютерная техника: Veritas Integration Platform, Versatile Image Processor, Versatile Interactive Pan, Video Integration Processor, Virtual Immediate Processing, Vlb Isa Pci, Voyager Information Portal

3) Медицина: vasoactive intestinal peptide, вазоактивный интестинальный пептид

4) Разговорное выражение: (сокр. от very important person) весьма важная персона

5) Американизм: Very Important Papers, Very Important Presentation, Very Impressive Pork

6) Спорт: Very Important Player

7) Военный термин: Variable Incentive Payment, Ventilated Improved Pit, Verified Independently For Performance, Victory In Place, Visitor Improvement Program, Visual Information Projection, Visual Input Processor, variable incentive pay, virtual impact point, visitor information publication, visual identification point, voice information processor, важная персона, важное лицо

8) Техника: V-groove isolation polycrystalline, VHDL instruction processor, vacuum impregnated magnetics, versatile information processor, video input processor, video integrator and processor, viewers in profile, vision information program, visual image processor, visual input

9) Шутливое выражение: Very Important Palestinian, Very Important Petunia

10) Религия: Very Important Prayer, Very Inspirational Posse, Visual Inspirational And Performing, Voices In Praise

11) Юридический термин: Values Integrity And Principles, Verified Identified Parentage, Very Intoxicated Person, Victim In Past, Visually Impaired Person

12) Ветеринария: Versatility In Poodles, Very Important Pandas, Very Important Pet, Very Important Ponies

13) Дипломатический термин: (very important person) очень важная персона

14) Музыка: Vanilla Ice Posse

15) Оптика: virtual image processing

16) Телекоммуникации: VINES Internet Protocol

17) Сокращение: Vehicle Improvement Program (USPS database contains contract records on the purchases of all non-mail hauling vehicles for the Postal Service), Vehicle Improvement Programme, Vertical launch Interface Processor, Vertically Integrated Photodiode, Video Imaging Projectile, Visual Integrated Presentation

18) Университет: Very Important Problem, Virginia Instructors Of Physics

19) Физиология: Various Individualistic Personalities, Vascular Intervention Program, Vision Integrated Performance, Visual Information Processing

20) Электроника: Vertically Integrated Pnp, Very Intense Power

21) Вычислительная техника: Versatile Interface Processor, video image processor, visionary interpreter for PostScript, visual programmer, Virtual Internet Protocol (address, IP), VLB - ISA - PCI (board, VLB, ISA, PCI), Visual Information Projection (terminal, Bull)

22) Биохимия: вазоактивный интестинальный полипептид

23) Биотехнология: Visual immunoprecipitation

24) Транспорт: Vehicle Investment Protection

25) Пищевая промышленность: Very Impressive Proportions

26) Фирменный знак: Valerie Irons Protection, Vista Income Properties, Volunteers In Progress

27) Реклама: Очень важная персона

28) Деловая лексика: Value Indulgence And Privilege, Very Important Partners, Very Innovative Product, Virtual Interactive Partnership, Virtual Internal Procurement, Visibility Image And Positioning, Vision Insight And Planning, Volunteers In Partnership, Volunteers Invaluable Participants, Volunteers Of International Paper, важная персона (very important person)

29) Образование: Values Integrity People, Very Interested Parents, Very Involved Parents, Victory In Partnership

30) Контроль качества: value improvement program

31) Сахалин Ю: value improving practices, value improving practices/process

32) Авиационная медицина: voice interruption priority

33) Макаров: vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, vertical ionization potential

34) Безопасность: very important person

35) Расширение файла: Variable Information Processing, Video Information Provider, Virtual Interrupt Pending, Visual Interactive Parser

36) ООН: Very Ignorant People, Very Impotent People

37) Общественная организация: Volunteer Investment Program

38) Правительство: Various Interesting Points, Very Irksome Place, Virginia Initiative Plant

39) НАСА: Visual Inspection Program

40) Программное обеспечение: Visual Interactive Programming

41) Международная торговля: Value In Partnership

    The Characteristics of Neural Networks That Make Them So Useful

   1. A neural network is composed of a number of very simple processing elements [("neurodes")] that communicate through a rich set of interconnections with variable weights or strengths.

   2. Memories are stored or represented in a neural network in the pattern of variable interconnection weights among the neurodes. Information is processed by a spreading, constantly changing pattern of activity distributed across many neurodes.

   3. A neural network is taught or trained rather than programmed. It is even possible to construct systems capable of independent or autonomous learning....

   4. Instead of having a separate memory and controller, plus a stored external program that dictates the operation of the system as in a digital computer, the operation of a neural network is implicitly controlled by three properties: the transfer function of the neurodes, the details of the structure of the connections among the neurodes, and the learning law the system follows.

   5. A neural network naturally acts as an associative memory. That is, it inherently associated items it is taught, physically grouping similar items together in its structure. A neural network operated as a memory is content addressable; it can retrieve stored information from incomplete, noisy, or partially incorrect input cues.

   6. A neural network is able to generalize; it can learn the characteristics of a general category of objects based on a series of specific examples from that category.

   7. A neural network keeps working even after a significant fraction of its neurodes and interconnections have become defective.

   8. A neural network innately acts as a processor for time-dependent spatial patterns, or spatiotemporal patterns. (Caudill & Butler, 1990, pp. 7-8)

1) elastisch

2) (fig.): (flexible) flexibel

(elastic band) Gummiband, das; (fabric) elastisches Material

* * *

1) ((of a material or substance) able to return to its original shape or size after being pulled or pressed out of shape: an elastic bandage; Rubber is an elastic substance.) elastisch

2) (able to be changed or adapted: This is a fairly elastic arrangement.) anpassungsfähig

- academic.ru/23609/elasticity">elasticity

* * *

I. adj

1. (stretchable) elastisch, dehnbar

to have \elastic properties elastisch sein

2. ( fig: adaptable) flexibel, anpassungsfähig

3. ( fig: buoyant) person seelisch robust

he has an \elastic personality er ist nicht unterzukriegen

4. ECON (variable) currency elastisch

II. n

1. (material) elastisches Material, Gummi m

2. (band) Gummiband nt, Gummi m fam

* * *

1. adj (lit, fig)

2. n

* * *

elastic [ıˈlæstık]

A adj (adv elastically)

1. elastisch:

a) federnd, spannkräftig (beide auch fig)

b) dehnbar, biegsam, geschmeidig (auch fig):

elastic conscience weites Gewissen;

elastic currency WIRTSCH elastische Währung;

an elastic term ein dehnbarer Begriff

c) fig anpassungsfähig

2. PHYS

a) elastisch (verformbar)

b) (unbegrenzt) expansionsfähig (Gase)

c) inkompressibel (Flüssigkeiten):

elastic deformation elastische Verformung;

elastic force Elastizität f;

elastic scattering elastische Streuung

3. Gummi…:

elastic band Br Gummiring m, -band n, (Dichtungs)Gummi m;

elastic stocking Gummistrumpf m

B s besonders US Gummistoff m, -gewebe n

* * *

1) elastisch

2) (fig.): (flexible) flexibel

(elastic band) Gummiband, das; (fabric) elastisches Material

* * *

dehnbar adj.

elastisch adj.

elas·tic [ɪʼlæstɪk] adj

1) ( stretchable) elastisch, dehnbar;

to have \elastic properties elastisch sein;

2) (fig: adaptable) flexibel, anpassungsfähig;

3) (fig: buoyant) person seelisch robust;

he has an \elastic personality er ist nicht unterzukriegen

4) econ ( variable) currency elastisch n

1) ( material) elastisches Material, Gummi m

2) ( band) Gummiband nt, Gummi m ( fam)

- value added

- value added by manufacture, mining, building construction, transportation, trade:

- value added in the development of mineral properties

- value added per manhour

- value advanced

- at value

- value at installation

- value c.i.f.

- value embodied

- value f.o.b.

- value in exchange

- value in use

- no par value

- of value

- of no value

- value on hand

- value originally advanced

- value received

- create value

- determine value

- have test tube value

- value on a person

- preserve value

- take on a value

- transmit value

- values went up

- value of benefits

- value of commodity

- value of contract awards

- value of currency

- value of determinant

- value of duel

- value of function

- value of game

- value of gold

- value of individual products shipped

- value of labor power

- value of machinery

- value of on-the-site work

- value of production

- value of service

- value of shipments

- value of shipments and receipts

- value of statistical item

- value of utility

- value of variable

- value of work-in-progress

- absolute surplus value

- additional surplus value

- anticipated values

- appraised value

- approximate value

- approximately commercial value

- assessed value

- asset value

- asymptotic value

- asymptotically optimum value

- at-market value

- at-site value

- average value

- balance sheet value

- balking value

- base values

- book value

- book value per share of common stock

- breakeven order value

- breeding value

- bullion value of coin

- calculated value

- capacity value

- capital value

- capitalized value

- carrying value

- cash value

- cash surrender value

- coining value of an ounce of gold or silver

- collateral value

- commercial value

- conditionally optimal value

- constant-dollar values

- contract value

- conversion value

- cost value

- crop value per tillable acre

- current value

- denominational value

- depreciable value

- design value

- desired value

- discounted value

- disposal value

- doubly smoothed value

- earning-capacity value

- economic value

- elemental time value

- estimated value

- excess surplus value

- exchange value

- expectation value

- expected value

- export value of imported merchandise

- extra surplus value

- extreme value

- face value

- fair-market value

- feeding value

- fertility value

- finite value

- fitted value

- food value

- foreign value of imported merchandise

- fuel replacement value

- full value

- given value

- going concern value

- gross value added

- gross book value

- gross book value of depletable assets

- gross book value of depreciable assets

- guess value

- highly significant value

- high unit value

- historical value

- home value

- hypothecary value

- imputed value

- imputed rental value

- individual value

- initial value

- inmost value

- insured value

- integral value

- intellectual values

- international value

- interpolated value

- intrinsic value

- inventory value

- investment value

- invoice sales value

- land value

- least-squares adjusted value

- liquidation value

- loan value

- lower value

- marginal value

- market value

- material values

- mean value

- measured value

- median value

- modal value

- monetary value of gold or silver

- money value

- net value added

- net value of assets

- net value per share

- new value produced

- nominal value

- nonuse value

- nutritive value

- observed value

- original cost value

- par value

- peak value

- permissible value

- physical value

- positive salvage value

- predicted value

- prescribed value

- present value

- present value of life policy

- price adjusted value

- produced-and-realized surplus value

- protein value

- ratable value

- rated value of output

- real value

- realization value

- reciprocal value

- recovery value

- redemption value

- relative surplus value

- replacement value

- residual value

- saddle value

- sales value

- salvage value

- sample value

- scalar value

- scarcity value

- scrap value

- self-expanding value

- selling value

- service value

- shipped value

- significance value

- significant value

- smoothed value

- sound value

- standard value of production

- standard factory values

- standardized value

- stated value

- steady-state value

- stock value

- stock market values

- subjective value

- surplus value

- surrender value

- table value

- tabular value

- tangible value

- target value

- theoretical mean value

- threshold value

- time value

- time value of money

- time-mean value

- trading value

- traffic value

- transfer value

- transferred value

- trend value

- true value

- unadjusted value added

- undepreciated value

- unit value

- upper value

- use value

- valley value

- weighted value

- wellhead value

- wild value

- written-off value

- zero value

- zero salvage value

   1) A Unitary Search Process for All the Phenomena of Memory

   To what extent can we lump together what goes on when you try to recall: (1) your name; (2) how you kick a football; and (3) the present location of your car keys? If we use introspective evidence as a guide, the first seems an immediate automatic response. The second may require constructive internal replay prior to our being able to produce a verbal description. The third... quite likely involves complex operational responses under the control of some general strategy system. Is any unitary search process, with a single set of characteristics and inputoutput relations, likely to cover all these cases? (Reitman, 1970, p. 485)

   2) Semantic Memory Is a Mental Thesaurus

   [Semantic memory] Is a mental thesaurus, organized knowledge a person possesses about words and other verbal symbols, their meanings and referents, about relations among them, and about rules, formulas, and algorithms for the manipulation of these symbols, concepts, and relations. Semantic memory does not register perceptible properties of inputs, but rather cognitive referents of input signals. (Tulving, 1972, p. 386)

   3) The Development of Mnemonic Codes

   The mnemonic code, far from being fixed and unchangeable, is structured and restructured along with general development. Such a restructuring of the code takes place in close dependence on the schemes of intelligence. The clearest indication of this is the observation of different types of memory organisation in accordance with the age level of a child so that a longer interval of retention without any new presentation, far from causing a deterioration of memory, may actually improve it. (Piaget & Inhelder, 1973, p. 36)

   4) The Logic of Some Memory Theorization Is of Dubious Worth in the History of Psychology

   If a cue was effective in memory retrieval, then one could infer it was encoded; if a cue was not effective, then it was not encoded. The logic of this theorization is "heads I win, tails you lose" and is of dubious worth in the history of psychology. We might ask how long scientists will puzzle over questions with no answers. (Solso, 1974, p. 28)

   5) The Constituent Elements of Memory Theory

   We have iconic, echoic, active, working, acoustic, articulatory, primary, secondary, episodic, semantic, short-term, intermediate-term, and longterm memories, and these memories contain tags, traces, images, attributes, markers, concepts, cognitive maps, natural-language mediators, kernel sentences, relational rules, nodes, associations, propositions, higher-order memory units, and features. (Eysenck, 1977, p. 4)

   6) The Problem with the Memory Metaphor

   The problem with the memory metaphor is that storage and retrieval of traces only deals [ sic] with old, previously articulated information. Memory traces can perhaps provide a basis for dealing with the "sameness" of the present experience with previous experiences, but the memory metaphor has no mechanisms for dealing with novel information. (Bransford, McCarrell, Franks & Nitsch, 1977, p. 434)

   7) The Results of a Hundred Years of the Psychological Study of Memory Are Somewhat Discouraging

   The results of a hundred years of the psychological study of memory are somewhat discouraging. We have established firm empirical generalisations, but most of them are so obvious that every ten-year-old knows them anyway. We have made discoveries, but they are only marginally about memory; in many cases we don't know what to do with them, and wear them out with endless experimental variations. We have an intellectually impressive group of theories, but history offers little confidence that they will provide any meaningful insight into natural behavior. (Neisser, 1978, pp. 12-13)

   8) The Structure and Function of a Schema in Memory

   A schema, then is a data structure for representing the generic concepts stored in memory. There are schemata representing our knowledge about all concepts; those underlying objects, situations, events, sequences of events, actions and sequences of actions. A schema contains, as part of its specification, the network of interrelations that is believed to normally hold among the constituents of the concept in question. A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning. That is, inasmuch as a schema underlying a concept stored in memory corresponds to the mean ing of that concept, meanings are encoded in terms of the typical or normal situations or events that instantiate that concept. (Rumelhart, 1980, p. 34)

   9) Competence and Performance in Theories of Memory

   Memory appears to be constrained by a structure, a "syntax," perhaps at quite a low level, but it is free to be variable, deviant, even erratic at a higher level....

   Like the information system of language, memory can be explained in part by the abstract rules which underlie it, but only in part. The rules provide a basic competence, but they do not fully determine performance. (Campbell, 1982, pp. 228, 229)

    10) Metaphors of Memory

   When people think about the mind, they often liken it to a physical space, with memories and ideas as objects contained within that space. Thus, we speak of ideas being in the dark corners or dim recesses of our minds, and of holding ideas in mind. Ideas may be in the front or back of our minds, or they may be difficult to grasp. With respect to the processes involved in memory, we talk about storing memories, of searching or looking for lost memories, and sometimes of finding them. An examination of common parlance, therefore, suggests that there is general adherence to what might be called the spatial metaphor. The basic assumptions of this metaphor are that memories are treated as objects stored in specific locations within the mind, and the retrieval process involves a search through the mind in order to find specific memories....

   However, while the spatial metaphor has shown extraordinary longevity, there have been some interesting changes over time in the precise form of analogy used. In particular, technological advances have influenced theoretical conceptualisations.... The original Greek analogies were based on wax tablets and aviaries; these were superseded by analogies involving switchboards, gramophones, tape recorders, libraries, conveyor belts, and underground maps. Most recently, the workings of human memory have been compared to computer functioning... and it has been suggested that the various memory stores found in computers have their counterparts in the human memory system. (Eysenck, 1984, pp. 79-80)

    11) Comparison of Primary Memory and Secondary Memory

   Primary memory [as proposed by William James] relates to information that remains in consciousness after it has been perceived, and thus forms part of the psychological present, whereas secondary memory contains information about events that have left consciousness, and are therefore part of the psychological past. (Eysenck, 1984, p. 86)

    12) Semantic Memory and Episodic Memory

   Once psychologists began to study long-term memory per se, they realized it may be divided into two main categories.... Semantic memories have to do with our general knowledge about the working of the world. We know what cars do, what stoves do, what the laws of gravity are, and so on. Episodic memories are largely events that took place at a time and place in our personal history. Remembering specific events about our own actions, about our family, and about our individual past falls into this category. With amnesia or in aging, what dims... is our personal episodic memories, save for those that are especially dear or painful to us. Our knowledge of how the world works remains pretty much intact. (Gazzaniga, 1988, p. 42)

    13) The Relation of Memory to Thinking

   The nature of memory... provides a natural starting point for an analysis of thinking. Memory is the repository of many of the beliefs and representations that enter into thinking, and the retrievability of these representations can limit the quality of our thought. (Smith, 1990, p. 1)

 

явление электрической дуги
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[Интент]

Параллельные тексты EN-RU

Electric arc phenomenon

The electric arc is a phenomenon which takes place as a consequence of a discharge which occurs when the voltage between two points exceeds the insulating strength limit of the interposed gas; then, in the presence of suitable conditions, a plasma is generated which carries the electric current till the opening of the protective device on the supply side.

Gases, which are good insulating means under normal conditions, may become current conductors in consequence of a change in their chemical-physical properties due to a temperature rise or to other external factors.

To understand how an electrical arc originates, reference can be made to what happens when a circuit opens or closes.

During the opening phase of an electric circuit the contacts of the protective device start to separate thus offering to the current a gradually decreasing section; therefore the current meets growing resistance with a consequent rise in the temperature.

As soon as the contacts start to separate, the voltage applied to the circuit exceeds the dielectric strength of the air, causing its perforation through a discharge.

The high temperature causes the ionization of the surrounding air which keeps the current circulating in the form of electrical arc. Besides thermal ionization, there is also an electron emission from the cathode due to the thermionic effect; the ions formed in the gas due to the very high temperature are accelerated by the electric field, strike the cathode, release energy in the collision thus causing a localized heating which generates electron emission.

The electrical arc lasts till the voltage at its ends supplies the energy sufficient to compensate for the quantity of heat dissipated and to maintain the suitable conditions of temperature. If the arc is elongated and cooled, the conditions necessary for its maintenance lack and it extinguishes.

Analogously, an arc can originate also as a consequence of a short-circuit between phases. A short-circuit is a low impedance connection between two conductors at different voltages.

The conducting element which constitutes the low impedance connection (e.g. a metallic tool forgotten on the busbars inside the enclosure, a wrong wiring or a body of an animal entered inside the enclosure), subject to the difference of potential is passed through by a current of generally high value, depending on the characteristics of the circuit.

The flow of the high fault current causes the overheating of the cables or of the circuit busbars, up to the melting of the conductors of lower section; as soon as the conductor melts, analogous conditions to those present during the circuit opening arise. At that point an arc starts which lasts either till the protective devices intervene or till the conditions necessary for its stability subsist.

The electric arc is characterized by an intense ionization of the gaseous means, by reduced drops of the anodic and cathodic voltage (10 V and 40 V respectively), by high or very high current density in the middle of the column (of the order of 102-103 up to 107 A/cm2), by very high temperatures (thousands of °C) always in the middle of the current column and – in low voltage - by a distance between the ends variable from some microns to some centimeters.

[ABB]

Явление электрической дуги

Электрическая дуга между двумя электродами в газе представляет собой физическое явление, возникающее в тот момент, когда напряжения между двумя электродами превышает значение электрической прочности изоляции данного газа.
При наличии подходящих условий образуется плазма, по которой протекает электрический ток. Ток будет протекать до тех пор, пока на стороне электропитания не сработает защитное устройство.

Газы, являющиеся хорошим изолятором, при нормальных условиях, могут стать проводником в результате изменения их физико-химических свойств, которые могут произойти вследствие увеличения температуры или в результате воздействия каких-либо иных внешних факторов.

Для того чтобы понять механизм возникновения электрической дуги, следует рассмотреть, что происходит при размыкании или замыкании электрической цепи.

При размыкании электрической цепи контакты защитного устройства начинают расходиться, в результате чего постепенно уменьшается сечение контактной поверхности, через которую протекает ток.
Сопротивление электрической цепи возрастает, что приводит к увеличению температуры.

Как только контакты начнут отходить один от другого, приложенное напряжение превысит электрическую прочность воздуха, что вызовет электрический пробой.

Высокая температура приведет к ионизации воздуха, которая обеспечит протекание электрического тока по проводнику, представляющему собой электрическую дугу. Кроме термической ионизации молекул воздуха происходит также эмиссия электронов с катода, вызванная термоэлектронным эффектом. Образующиеся под воздействием очень высокой температуры ионы ускоряются в электрическом поле и бомбардируют катод. Высвобождающаяся, в результате столкновения энергия, вызывает локальный нагрев, который, в свою очередь, приводит к эмиссии электронов.

Электрическая дуга длится до тех пор, пока напряжение на ее концах обеспечивает поступление энергии, достаточной для компенсации выделяющегося тепла и для сохранения условий поддержания высокой температуры. Если дуга вытягивается и охлаждается, то условия, необходимые для ее поддержания, исчезают и дуга гаснет.

Аналогичным образом возникает дуга в результате короткого замыкания электрической цепи. Короткое замыкание представляет собой низкоомное соединение двух проводников, находящихся под разными потенциалами.

Проводящий элемент с малым сопротивлением, например, металлический инструмент, забытый на шинах внутри комплектного устройства, ошибка в электромонтаже или тело животного, случайно попавшего в комплектное устройство, может соединить элементы, находящиеся под разными потенциалами, в результате чего через низкоомное соединение потечет электрический ток, значение которого определяется параметрами образовавшейся короткозамкнутой цепи.

Протекание большого тока короткого замыкания вызывает перегрев кабелей или шин, который может привести к расплавлению проводников с меньшим сечением. Как только проводник расплавится, возникает ситуация, аналогичная размыканию электрической цепи. Т. е. в момент размыкания возникает дуга, которая длится либо до срабатывания защитного устройства, либо до тех пор, пока существуют условия, обеспечивающие её стабильность.

Электрическая дуга характеризуется интенсивной ионизацией газов, что приводит к падению анодного и катодного напряжений (на 10 и 40 В соответственно), высокой или очень высокой плотностью тока в середине плазменного шнура (от 102-103 до 107 А/см2), очень высокой температурой (сотни градусов Цельсия) всегда в середине плазменного шнура и низкому падению напряжения при расстоянии между концами дуги от нескольких микрон до нескольких сантиметров.

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